Headings
Introduction: “Fables of the Ancients”
The accusation of disingenuity is not new, it is present in the Qur’an itself, as Mohammed himself recounts his people protesting in the following verses:
“…the disbelievers say. ‘these are nothing but ancient fables” (Q6:25)
“And When Our signs were being recited to them, they said, ‘We have already heard; if we wished, we could say the like of this; this is naught but the fairy-tales of the ancients.’ (Q 8:31)
“And among them are those who abuse the Prophet and say, “He is an ear. (he will listen to anything- AH” Say, “[It is] an ear of goodness for you that believes in Allah and believes the believers and [is] a mercy to those who believe among you.” And those who abuse the Messenger of Allah – for them is a painful punishment.” (Q 9:61)
“And when it is said to them, ‘What has your Lord sent down?’ they say, ‘Fairy-tales of the ancients.'” (Q 16:24)
And Q 38:77 “…We have not heard of this in the Christian faith. It is nothing but a false invention. Was the word revealed to him alone among us?’”
“Nothing is said to you that has not been said to other apostles before you.” Q 40:42
The stories of prophetic figures in the Qur’an leave out many details ordinarily considered essential for a clear understanding of the text. Academic scholars have described the Qur’an as being “referential,” “allusive,” and “elliptical.” Some scholars have called the Qur’an a text without a context, meaning that it refers to many stories without giving the background or setting, as if the audience already knows the story and does not require the basic details. Consider that the only sūra in the Qur’an that is entirely devoted to a single narrative is Sūra 12, “Yūsuf”. The Qur’an calls this sūra “the most beautiful of tales (qaṣaṣ) in what we have revealed to you that qurʾān” (Q 12:3). And yet even Sūra 12 is missing many details from the Torah account.
Some of the sources are obscure and difficult to date, but there are others which clearly pre-date Islam.
Out of any number of possibilities lost in the sands of time, one likely source is Waraqah ibn Nawfal. I’ve taken this from The Life of Fatimah Az-Zahra’, The Principal of all Women: Study and Analysis Baqir Sharif al-Qurashi on AI-Islam website, which is linked to the Ahlul Bayt Digital Islamic Library Project: The page states:
“A very small number of Christians and Jews lived in Mecca at the time and a fairly large number of Jews lived in Medina in fortified communities, small and large, the largest being Khaybar, one of Khadijah’s cousins (some say he was her uncle), had embraced Christianity and was a pious monk”.
The site goes on to state that this Waraqah was one of the first to approve of Mohammed as a prophet. Uncle Waraq dies a few days into Mohammed’s first revelations, as the story goes, and this event according to traditions plunges Muhammed into a suicidal despair, leading one to think that his sorrow was at losing his “source” of revelations.
But even apart from this, Mecca fell on an important trade route with Lebanon and Syria and thereby exchange of ideas and literature would have been possible and ongoing. Mohammed after all was a camel caravan trader and hence would have interacted with traders from the North. Bear in mind also that Christianity by this point is a mature and well-established religion, even though the Bible had not at that time yet been translated into Arabic. It would be several centuries before Islam acquired the same self-assurance.
What is the Muslim Response to this?
Muslims would say “well, we have those passage in common because they really happened”. When you look at the actual “Gospels” in quetion, they are really very not Islamic, nor even Christian. Not a single one of them would be or is suitable or recommended Muslim reading. But Muslims are going to say “well the Qur’an preserved the crumbs of truth from all of these gospels”. How do you know they’re true? Well because they’re in the Quran, and the Qur’an has numerical “miracles” and “prophecy” about the Romans and Persians.
My follow-up objection would be “well…but many of these stories don’t really belong in Islam. They don’t even make much sense. Sometimes there are conflicting accounts of the same story, like Adam and Iblis and Moses and the Bush”. If everything true ended up in the Qur’an why is it still confusing and still seemingly not Islamic. Its like having a really complex and elaborate recipe that tastes the same as a really simple recipe that wasn’t so tasty anyway (granted that most simple recipes are really tasty :))
Perhaps more importantly, why are Jesus and Mary such superstars in them :)?
Anyway, this is an anaylsis of the relevant passages and their sources.
Angels Ordered to Prostrate to Adam
There are in no less than seven instances of this same story of Adam and Iblis repeated in the Quran with different lengths and slight thematic variations.
“Behold, thy Lord said to the angels: “I will create a vicegerent on earth.” They said: “Wilt Thou place therein one who will make mischief therein and shed blood?- whilst we do celebrate Thy praises and glorify Thy holy (name)?” He said: “I know what ye know not.” (YA 2:30)
(Pickthall) “He said: What hindered thee that thou didst not fall prostrate when I bade thee? (Iblis) said: I am better than him. Thou createdst me of fire while him Thou didst create of mud.” (Surah 7:12)
The verses mentioning the incident are 2:34; 7:11-18; 15:29-43; 17:61-64; 18:50; 20:116-117 and 38:71-83.
These are the common themes between the Qur’an and the pseudoepigraphic writings:
-Command to bow down to Adam
-The angels bow down to/worship Adan
-Satan criticizes man as inferior
-Satan claims he is from fire
-Satan refuses to worship
-Satan is expelled
Only the last of these is from the Bible, the rest is backstory supplied in the Jewish pseudoepigrapha, of which there are no less than three sources, which I enumerate here, and possibly more.
The Life of Adam and Eve: A group of pseudo-epigraphic writings that relates tales of Adam and Eve following their expulsion from the Garden. These differ greatly in length and wording, but for the most part are derived from a single source that has not survived. While the versions were composed from the early 3rd to the 5th century, the literary units in the work are considered to be older and predominantly of Jewish origin, from the 1st century AD. Hedley Sparks in The Apocryphal Old Testament (p142, Oxford University Press inc. NY 1984, quoting LSA Wells, one of the translators of the Latin manuscript), states that the author was probably a Jew of the Dispersion (following the fall of Jerusalem in AD 60), who wrote perhaps at Alexandria ‘between AD 60 and 300 and probably in the earliest years of this period’.
The Book of the Cave of Treasures (6th century AD, Some Parts 4th., Syriac):
“And when the prince of the lower order of angels saw what great majesty had been given unto Adam, he was jealous of him from that day, and he did not wish to worship him. And he said unto his hosts, “Ye shall not worship him, and ye shall not praise him with the angels. It is meet that ye should worship me, because I am fire and spirit; and not that I should worship a thing of dust, which hath been fashioned of fine dust.” And the Rebel mediating these things would not render obedience to God, and of his own free will he asserted his independence and separated himself from God. But he was swept away out of heaven and fell, and the fall of himself and of all his company…”
Babylonian Talmud (Tractate Sanhedrin: Folio 38b)
“When the Holy One, blessed be He, wished to create man, He [first] created a company of ministering angels and said to them: Is it your desire that we make a man in our image? They answered: Sovereign of the Universe, what will be his deeds? Such and such will be his deeds, He replied. Thereupon they exclaimed: Sovereign of the Universe, What is man that thou art mindful of him, and the son of man that thou thinkest of him? Thereupon He stretched out His little finger among them and consumed them with fire…”
The Gospel of Bartholomew (3rd century AD, Greek/Latin/Slavonic):
“And when I came from the ends of the earth Michael said: Worship thou the image of God, which he hath made according to his likeness. But I said: I am fire of fire, I was the first angel formed, and shall worship clay and matter?…”
Homicide of Humanity!
“Because of this, we decreed for the Children of Israel that anyone who murders any person who had not committed murder or horrendous crimes, it shall be as if he murdered all the people. And anyone who spares a life, it shall be as if he spared the lives of all the people.” (Qur’an 5:32)
The Qur’an itself seemingly admits that this is a past edict ‘We decreed for the Children of Israel…” . The problem is that the original itself is not Scripture, rather a commentary and hardly the “decree of God” that it purports to be. (the rabbi who penned it would have been mortified!) The Sanhedrin parallel is merely a rabbinical commentary on the murder of Abel in Gen.4:10, a Mishnayot – teaching of a Jewish sage. This is the Babylonian Talmud page from which the verse is taken, which unlike the Qur’an actually gives the context for the verse. Only the single line highlighted in red is Scripture, and we see the phrase “kills a single soul of Israel”, taken in the Qur’an as “decreed for the Children of Israel”:
“For thus we find in the case of Cain, who killed his brother, that it is written: the bloods of thy brother cry unto me: not the blood of thy brother, but the bloods of thy brother, is said — i.e., his blood and the blood of his [potential] descendants. (alternatively, the bloods of thy brother, teaches that his blood was splashed over trees and stones.) For this reason was man created alone, to teach thee that whosoever destroys a single soul of Israel, scripture imputes [guilt] to him as though he had destroyed a complete world; and whosoever preserves a single soul of Israel, scripture ascribes [merit] to him as though he had preserved a complete world...” Talmud: Sanhedrin 37a (Tractate Sanhedrin: 4:5)
Raven Requiem
Pirke Rabbi Eliezer. according to the Encyclopaedia Judaica, is a pseudepigrahic work, attributed to Rabbi Eliezer b. Hyrcanus [first century], but written most probably in the 8th century. Late Talmudic authorities (Jewish Rabbis) belonging to the 3rd century C.E., like Shemaiah (ch. xxiii.), Ze’era (ch. xxi., xxix.), and Shila (ch. xlii., xliv.), are also quoted, indicating that the work was edited or additions were made to it after the time of R. Eliezar. There are at least two ancient manuscripts of the Pirke De-Rabbi Eli’ezer. The ancient Vienna manuscript, which has only in recent years been translated into English, shows every evidence of being pre-Islamic. I cannot say with certainty whether the remnant of that manuscript contains the Raven story, it probably is lost.
In the Qu’ran, the the sight of a raven burying it’s dead relative brings repentance to the murderous Kane. The Midrashic fable actually speaks of Adam and Eve learning to bury their dead from the sight of the raven burying it’s dead, having never been faced with the situation of a dead relative before and therefore not knowing what to do with the corpse. The Qur’an account ends with the raven being given a “reward” by Allah (most birds would be happy with a biscuit).
Birds don’t bury their dead at all so this is a strange way for the first man to learn how to honor the dead. Ravens and crows do have certain funereal rituals though; when one of them dies or is killed, they surround the corpse and caw for a while. But bury their dead they do not, in fact I do not think that birds dig holes period. The very last thing you want is a chipped beak, it would mean starvation for the bird.
Destroying Daddy’s Deities!
Talmudic writings are a collection of the vast rabbinic teaching material that includes commentaries on legal issues as well as commentaries on Scriptural issues. There are two, the other being the Babylonian Talmud. The Encyclopedea Judaica 1996 edition, Vol 15, p 772, states: “Jerusalem Talmud was compiled about a century before the Babylonian in 500CE. Its close was entirely due to the situation which prevailed in (Erez) Israel. The activities of the main school, that of Tiberius, came to an end in 421 CE.
The Midrash Bereshit, also called the Genesis Rabbah (Meaning a Rabbinic exegesis on Genesis) It is difficult to ascertain the exact date of the actual editing of the Bereshit Rabbah; it was probably undertaken not much later than that of the Jerusalem Talmud.
“Rabbi Hiyya… said that Terah was a maker of idols. One time, he went out, and he left Abraham to sell [the idols] in his place. A person came and asked to buy one, and [Abraham] asked him, ‘How old are you?’ And the man said to him, ’50 or 60 [years].’ And [Abraham] said, ‘Oy to the man who is 60 years old and needs to worship [an idol] that is a day old!’ [The man] was embarrassed, and he went [on his way]” (Genesis Rabbah 38:13).
Converting the Conjurers
“Ambrosiaster”
Also called by the more descriptive- “The Penitence of Jannes and Jambre”. Also called Pseudo-Ambrosius, this was name generally employed to denote the unknown author of the Commentaria in xiii Epistolas beati Pauli, formerly ascribed to St. Ambrose. It is best dated to AD366–384. This book was thoroughly denounced as apocryphal by no less than three early Christian authors: it is mentioned in the Gelasian decree (6th century) as an apocryphal book and Origen denounces it as a ‘secret apocryphal book’, ‘not found in the public scriptures’ (James, 1920).
In Surah 7:120, the Quran says that seeing Moses’ powerful signs, two of Pharaoh’s magicians are converted to Judaism. Stories of Pharaoh’s chief magicians, Jannes and Jambres who opposed Moses belong to pre-Christian Judaic antiquity and various differing accounts of them are to be found as well detailed by Charlesworth. They even get a passing mention in the New Testament letter of St Paul 2Timothy 3:8. “As Jannes and Jambres opposed Moses, so these men also oppose the truth, men of corrupt mind and counterfeit faith…”. Thus these two characters appear to have been widely known in the ancient world, although the Torah makes no mention of them at all. The only story that talks of their conversion, however, is 4th century Ambrosiaster . The writer, writing on 2nd Timothy says:
“For James and Jambres were brothers, magicians or poisoners, of the Egyptians, who thought they could they could resist by the art of their magic the mighty works of God which were being accomplished through them. But when the might of Moses in his works proved greater, they were humbled and confessed, with the pain of their wounds, that it was God that wrought in Moses (James, 1920).
The Mountain Menace!
God floats a mountain above the Israelites to scare them into submission. This is from the Talmud which is a stated reflection on Exodus 19:17 “Then Moses brought the people out of the camp to meet God; and they took their stand at the foot of the mountain.”
The Babylonian Talmud: (Avodah Zarah 2b)R. Dimi b. Hama said: ”This teaches us that the Holy One, blessed be He, suspended the mountain over Israel like a vault, and said unto them: ‘If ye accept the Torah, it will be well with you, but if not, there will ye find your grave.”
Talmud, Tractate Shabbat: Folio 88a “And they stood under the mount: R. Abdimi b. Hama b. Hasa said: This teaches that the Holy One, blessed be He, overturned the mountain upon them like an [inverted] cask.”
The Qur’an grants literality to this “mountain menace”:
“We raised the mountain over them as if it had been a canopy, and they thought that it was going to fall on them. (We said): “Hold firmly to what We have given you.”(Surah 7:171)
“And remember We took your covenant and We raised above you (The towering height) of Mount (Sinai) : (Saying): “Hold firmly to what We have given you and bring (ever) to remembrance what is therein: Perchance ye may fear Allah.” (Surah 2:63)
The Keys of Korah!
Numbers Midrash: it is mentioned in Babylonian Talmud. The story is found in both Sanhedrin 110a and Pesachim 119a, with only minor differences: Thus the story one made Rabbi Levi; a third century Haggadist who lived in Palestine. As we know, the compilation of the two great Talmuds was completed by AD 400-500.
In the Biblical book of Genesis, Korah is the great grand-son of Levi who resists Moses’ leadership, and as a result is swallowed up along with his entire household into the Earth, and that is all the Bible says about him. As the Numbers Midrash exciting Aladdin-like story goes, Korah is actually a wise man who also gets very rich when he finds treasure that is buried by Jacob. “And Rabbi Levi said: “The keys to Korah’s treasure house was a load for 300 white mules and the keys and locks were leather.”
The Qur’an smooshes the two stories together as:
Surah 28:76 says “We had given him such treasures that their very keys would have weighed down a band of sturdy men.” However Korah is proud and says “The riches are given to me on account of the knowledge I possess.” (***SMOOSH POINT***) …because he fails to give thanks to God, he is, indeed swallowed up in to the Earth along with his dwelling” in 28:81.
Angels Scribing
“And [there are] angels who are appointed over seasons and years, the angels who are over rivers and sea, and who are over the fruits of the earth, and the angels who are over every grass, giving food to all, to every living thing; and the angels who write all the souls of men, and all their deeds, and their lives before the Lord’s face. (2 Enoch 19:4-5 Late 1st Century AD ~ Greek (Semitic Original)
“But verily over you (are appointed angels) to protect you,- Kind and honourable,- Writing down (your deeds): They know (and understand) all that ye do.(Quran Surah 8:10-12)
Fishing on the Sabbath?
“Ask them concerning the town standing close by the sea. Behold! they transgressed in the matter of the Sabbath. For on the day of their Sabbath their fish did come to them, openly holding up their heads, but on the day they had no Sabbath, they came not: thus did We make a trial of them, for they were given to transgression.” (Quran 7:163)
When Rabbi was dying he said: ‘There is [a town] Humania in Babylon, which consists entirely of Ammonites; there is Misgaria in Babylon, consisting entirely of mamzerim; there is Birka Babylon, which contains two brothers who interchange their wives; there is a Birtha di Satya Babylon: to-day they have turned away from the Almighty: a fishpond overflowed on the Sabbath, and they went and caught the fish on the Sabbath, whereat R. Ahi son of R. Josiah declared the ban against them, and they renounced Judaism” Tractate Kiddushin: 72a Babylonian Talmud 5th/6th Century AD ~ Hebrew
Anthropo- Monkey
Allah apparently performed reverse evolution of some humans.
R. Jeremiah b. Eleazar said: They split up into three parties. One said, “Let us ascend and dwell there;” the second, “Let us ascend and serve idols;” and the third said, “Let us ascend and wage war [with God].” The party which proposed, “Let us ascend, and dwell there” — the Lord scattered them; the one that said, “Let us ascend and wage war” were turned to apes, spirits, devils, and night-demons; whilst as for the party which said, “Let us ascend and serve idols” — ‘for there the Lord did confound the language of all the earth.’ Tractate Sanhedrin: 109a Babylonian Talmud 5th/6th Century AD ~ Hebrew
When in their insolence they transgressed (all) prohibitions, We said to them: “Be ye apes, despised and rejected.” (Qur’an 7:166)
Magically Manufacturing the Monarch’s Mansions
Main text from the Quran:
“We subjected the wind to him, so that it blew gently at his bidding, wherever he directed it, and We also subjected the devils to him all kinds of builders and divers; and others that were bound with chains.” -Surah 38:36-38
On the dating of ToS:
The date of authorship of the Testament of Solomon (ToS) is debated. However, the traditions are most likely very early. Generally, in texts like these, the traditions far antedate the authorship of the document.
“In 1898, F. C. Conybeare, in the preface to his English translation of the testament (MS P), noted that it was quoted as one of Solomon’s authentic writings in the Greek Dialogue of Timothy and Aquila. The Dialogue, a Christian document from about A.D. 400, was thought by Conybeare to go back to an earlier dialogue from the middle of the second century.” -D. C. Duling, “A New Translation and Introduction,” in The Old Testament Pseudepigrapha, vol. 1 (New York; London: Yale University Press, 1983), 940.
Verses from the ToS
“Then the little boy went and spoke to Solomon, “King Solomon, I brought the demon to you just as you commanded me; observe how he is standing bound in front of the gates outside, crying out with a great voice to give me all the silver and gold of the earth so that I would not deliver him to you.” –Testament of Solomon 1:13 -Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, pp. 962–963). New York; London: Yale University Press. Online see verse 8:
http://www.esotericarchives.com/solomon/testamen.htm;
“Islamic folklore developed the Solomonic tale in tremendously fertile and imaginative ways. Solomon is the greatest of the world rulers, a true apostle of Allah, his messenger, and a prototype of Muhammad.” (Duling, D. C. (1983). A New Translation and Introduction.” In The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 951). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
“Solomon is the subject of a large number of traditions and legends in Arabic literature, in which he completely overshadows in importance his father, David. Solomon is spoken of as the messenger of God (“rasul Allah”), and is in a way a prototype of Mohammed. Hence the importance assigned to his relations with the Queen of Sheba, the submission of whose country is taken to mean the submission of Arabia. The letter addressed to her, summoning her to accept Islam, begins with the same formula (“Bi-ism Allah al-Raḥman al-Raḥim”) as that used in the documents issued by Mohammed.” -Jewish Encyclopedia http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13842-solomon
“In the medieval period, probably about the twelfth century, and probably under Arabian influence, Solomon became known especially as a writer of scientific and magical books. M. Seligsohn mentions forty-nine of these books…this list is by no means exhaustive…By the fifteenth century, books of magical secrets were attributed to many major characters of the Jewish Scriptures, including Adam and Moses, and especially Solomon. To this company, Zoroaster, Hermes Trismegistus, Aristotle, Alexander the Great, Virgil, and Muḥammad were joined.” (Duling, D. C. (1983). A New Translation and Introduction. In The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 956). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
“…he [wind demon] broke through a large contingent of soldiers, raised up a blustering cloud of dust from the earth, transported it upward, and hurled it against me many times (while I watched) in amazement…When I stood up, I spat on the ground at that spot and I sealed (him)…As a result, the moving air stopped.” -Testament of Solomon 7:2-3 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 969). New York; London: Yale University Press.) http://www.earlyjewishwritings.com/testsolomon.html
Then the boy obeyed the orders and went to Arabia. Now the men from the region doubted whether it was possible to bring the evil spirit under control. Nonetheless, before dawn the house servant got up and confronted the spirit of the wind…[the demon enters the flask] the boy stood firm. He bound up the mouth of the flask in the name of the Lord Sabaoth and the [wind] demon stayed inside the flask.” -Testament of Solomon 22:12; 14 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 984). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
“..Then I [Solomon]…commanded him to pick up stones and hurl them up to the heights of the Temple for the workmen.” -Testament of Solomon 7:2; 8 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 969). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
“Now when I, Solomon, heard these things, I commanded him [Beelzeboul, prince of the demons] to cut blocks of Theban marble.” -Testament of Solomon 6:9 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 968). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
“Now there was a gigantic cornerstone which I wished to place at the head of the comer to complete the Temple of God. All the artisans and all the demons who were helping came to the same (location) to bring the stone and mount it at the end of the Temple, but they were not strong enough to budge it.” -Testament of Solomon 22:7-8 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 984). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
When he had said these things, he [Arabian wind demon] went in underneath the stone, lifted it up, went up the flight of steps carrying the stone, and inserted it into the end of the entrance of the Temple.” -Testament of Solomon 23:3 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 985). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
Then I [Solomon] said to him, “What can you do for me?” He [the Arabian wind demon] responded, “I am able to move mountains, to carry houses from one place to another, and to overthrow kings.” I said to him, “If you have the power, lift this stone into the beginning of the corner of the Temple.” But he responded, “I will raise not only this stone, King; but, with (the aid of) the demon who lives in the Red Sea, (I will) also (lift up) the pillar of air (which is) in the Red Sea and you shall set it up where you wish. -Testament of Solomon 23:1-2 (Charlesworth, J. H. (1983). The Old Testament pseudepigrapha (Vol. 1, p. 985). New York; London: Yale University Press.)
Commentary from the Tafsir:
“(And also the Shayatin, from every kind of builder and diver,) [Surah 38:37] means, among them were some whom he used to build high rooms, images, basins as large as reservoirs, and cauldrons fixed (in their places), and other difficult tasks which humans were unable to do. And there was another group, who dived into the sea recovering pearls, jewels and other precious things which cannot be found anywhere else.” -Tafsir Kathir,
“Then, since he dispensed with them [the horses] for the sake of Allah, Allah compensated him with something better, the wind which blew gently by his order wherever he willed.” -Tafsir Kathir http://www.qtafsir.com/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=1954&Itemid=94
In addition to all this, Solomon’s army consisted of birds, ants(!) and jinn…A passage in which king Solomon also comprehends ant-language is recorded, where at the approach of Solomon’s army, the ant shouts out a warning to it’s brothers. Solomon then “hears her words and smiles”. While ants have many rudimentary organs that are analogical to human beings, the one organ they do not have is lungs. Like most insects, they take in oxygen through openings in their abdomens called ‘spiracles’ which allows sufficient oxygen to maintain their activity. No lungs, no vocal cords, and this means that they cannot make a sound. There is also a profound conversation between an ant and a bird.
The Midrashic accounts are copious and wonderfully elaborate and they contain all the elements of the Qur’anic accounts.For example the Qur’an relates that King Sulaiman’s (Solomon’s) mastery of the languages of all creatures allowed him to regiment the hosts of humans, birds and jinns under his command. This echoes the talmudic legends of how the wise monarch exercised dominion over the beasts of the field, the birds of the air, and assorted demons and supernatural spirits.
Solomon and Ashmedai
A lot of this section is excerpts from the Islam Critiqued YouTube channel, provided download.
One day, when he [Solomon] was alone with him [Ashmedai], he [Solomon] said, “It is written, ‘He has toafot and reem [תועפת ראם; Num 24:8]’, which we translate as ministering angels and demons. How come you’re better than we are?” He [Ashmedai] said to him [Solomon], “Take the chain off me and give me your ring, and I’ll show you.” He [Solomon] took off the chain and gave him the ring. He [Ashmedai] swallowed him, and he put one wing on the earth and one in the sky and he threw [spat] him four hundred parasangs. That is what Solomon meant when he said, “So what profit is there to a man in all his labor wherein he labors under the sun” (Qoh 1:3)…” -Jacob Neusner, The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary, vol. 11b (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2011), 302.
Then Solomon spent some years as a beggar before he presented himself to Jewish officials (that we’ll talk about later), was then recognized, given his magical ring and regained the throne, as the demon fled:
He would make the rounds begging, and wherever he went he would say, “I Qohelet was king over Israel in Jerusalem” (Qoh. 1:12)…They sent them word, “Examine his leg” [to see whether it is a demon in Solomon’s form, since the demon’s legs are like those of a cock (Simon)]…So they sent for Solomon and gave him back the chain and the ring on which the Name was engraved. When he came in, [the demon Ashomedai] saw him. He flew away, and even so, he was afraid of him. That is in line with the verse of Scripture, “Behold it is the litter of Solomon, threescore mighty men are about it of the mighty men of Israel. They all handle the sword and are expert in war, every man has his sword upon his thigh because of fear in the night” (Song. 3:7–8). Rab and Samuel: One said, “He was king, then commoner.” The other said, “He was king, commoner, then king again.” -Jacob Neusner, The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary, vol. 11b (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2011), 302–303.
One more important detail is in Solomon’s sins:
“For three long years Solomon journeyed about, begging his way from city to city, and from country to country, atoning for the three sins of his life by which he had set aside the commandment laid upon kings in Deuteronomy—not to multiply horses, and wives, and silver and gold.” -Louis Ginzberg, Henrietta Szold, and Paul Radin, Legends of the Jews, 2nd ed. (Philadelphia: Jewish Publication Society, 2003), 975–976.
Now we turn to the Quran:
“And We certainly tried Solomon and placed on his throne a body; then he returned (in repentance). He said, ‘My Lord, forgive me and grant me a kingdom such as will not belong to anyone after me. Indeed, You are the Bestower.’” -Surah 38:34-35
Here are some noteworthy parallels between the Quran and the Jewish legends we’ve just read:
| Surah 38:34-35 | b.Gittin 68a (Babylonian Talmud) |
| Solomon is tested | Solomon is challenged (by Ashmedai) |
| Solomon binds and unleashes Ashmedai | |
| A body is placed on the throne | Ashmedai assumes the throne |
| Solomon humbly returns in repentance | Solomon wanders as a beggar |
| Solomon asks for forgiveness for his sins | Three years of wandering for three sins |
| Solomon regains the kingdom | Solomon regains the kingdom |
Regarding the missing parallel, remember as we saw earlier, the binding of demons, though not specifically mentioned in these two verses is attested a couple verses later in the same Surah:
“And [also] the devils [of jinn] – every builder and diver and others bound together in shackles.” -Surah 38:37-38
According to the traditions themselves that the Quran borrows from, we are NOT dealing with a historical account. One such example is this detail in the Talmud:
He [Solomon] would make the rounds begging, and wherever he went he would say, “I Qohelet was king over Israel in Jerusalem” (Qoh. 1:12). When he came to the Sanhedrin, rabbis said, “But does a deranged person stick with only one piece of nonsense? What’s going on here [since he might not be deranged, holding as he does to a single coherent thing]?” -Jacob Neusner, The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary, vol. 11b (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2011), 302.
There were, demonstrably, no Sanhedrin in Solomon’s time. But this anachronistic reference isn’t a problem for the rabbis. It’s simply midrashic. It’s telling a story in terms people can understand in their time, back in the late second temple period. And, since the rabbis aren’t concerned with history per se, the reference to the Sanhedrin isn’t a problem for them or their audience. Another disconnect from the original context evident in the Quran is that Jewish tradition frequently refers to various Biblical texts to illustrate their meaning. where the books of Numbers or Qoheleth that are being quoted and not from the time of Solomon at all, yet their words are being intentionally placed upon his lips.
“Shaggy Shins” of Sheba
In his work Professor Crossfeld states in his introduction in regard to the origin of the Targum of Esther (Targum Sheni) in its earliest identifiable form:
“…final redaction is not composition. It is merely the date of final compilation and editing of earlier works. The Targum of Esther is mentioned in the Jerusalem Talmud and cited in the Tractrate Sopherim (Xlll:6). Thus its existence is in at least Amoraic times. (i.e. 4th Century)In another place in his introduction Professor Grossfeld states in connection with the origin of the Targum that it: Must have begun before the Christian era. On the same subject the Jewish Encyclopedia 1925 edition by Funk & Wagnalls Company, Vol 12, p 63 states: In the Masseket Soferim (lc) a quotation from the Targum Sheni to Esther lll is introduced by the words “Tirgem Tab Yosef” (Rabbi Joseph translation) So the Targum, having been quoted in the Jerusalem Talmud, must have had existence at least before the time the Jerusalem Talmud was finally concluded…”
Similarly, the Jerusalem Talmud the Encyclopedea Judaica 1996 edition, Vol 15, p 772, states:
“Jerusalem Talmud was compiled about a century before the Babylonian in 500CE. Its close was entirely due to the situation which prevailed in (Erez) Israel. The activities of the main school, that of Tiberius, came to an end in 421 (CE)
Let’s move farther down our timeline and read an account in the Babylonian Talmud that links this tradition with the story of the 4 who entered paradise. Then we’ll discuss the interpretation:
IV.30 A. Our rabbis have taught on Tannaite authority:
B. Four entered Paradise, and these are they: Ben Azzai, Ben Zoma, the Outsider, and R. Aqiba.
C. Said to them R. Aqiba, “When you get to stones of pure marble [that look like water], don’t say ‘Water, water,’ for it is said, “He who speaks falsehood shall not be established before my eyes” (Ps. 101:7).’ ”
D. Ben Azzai peeked and died. In his regard Scripture says, “Precious in the sight of the Lords the death of his saints” (Ps. 116:15).
E. Ben Zoma peeked and was smitten, and of him Scripture says, “You have found honey? eat so much as is enough for you, lest you be filled up with it and vomit it out” (Prov. 25:16).
F. The Outsider cut down the shoots.
G. R. Aqiba got out in one piece. [T. Hag. 2:3–4]
(Jacob Neusner, The Babylonian Talmud: A Translation and Commentary, vol. 7d (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson Publishers, 2011), 60–61.)
So what’s going on? The Bavli seems to be drawing on Merkebah (“chariot”) mysticism of the time, as taken from Hekhalot literature. In that legend, when Merkabah mystics ascend to the throne room they’re administered a series of tests. For example, at the 6th palace, they should not follow the first order given by an angel. If an angel says, “enter,” do not until the order is repeated a second time. Only then does the worthy mystic enter. What we’ve just read is a test that comes after that. The hopeful mystic is shown polished, pure stone that look like water. If the mystic is fooled into thinking it’s actual water, they are exposed as a fraud. Then, some sort of horrible death ensues. Now let’s move farther down our timeline (see diagram above) into the second targum of Esther. You will notice some striking similarities. The setting, is the Queen of Sheba coming to visit Solomon:
“When the king (Solomon) heard that she (Queen of Sheba) was coming to him, he arose and went and sat in a glass house. And when the Queen of Sheba saw that the king was sitting in a glass house, she considered in her heart and said to herself…that the king was sitting in water, so she lifted up her robe to wade across…”
–Targum Sheni, §4, ed. Cassel, Zweites Targum, 21. Cited from: C. R. A. Morray-Jones. A Transparent Illusion: The Dangerous Vision of Water in Hekhalot Mysticism: A Source-Critical and Tradition-Historical Inquiry. JSJ Sup 59. Leiden: Brill, 2002, 233.
The Qur’anic verse reads:
“It was said to her [Queen of Sheba], “Enter the Palace.” When she saw it [the palace], she thought it was a pool (of water), and she uncovered her legs. He [Solomon] said, “Surely it is a polished palace of crystal.” She said, “My Lord, surely I have done myself evil…” -Qur’an 27:44
Just as we saw in the mystical literature, this same quite conspicuous test was applied to the queen by Solomon. When the queen thought the stone of the palace was water and pulled up her robe to keep her legs from getting wet, she was exposed as a fraud. And remember, we started at the left side of our diagram with historical material and ended with material the Quran thinks is historical.
Jacob Lassner states:
“Shorn of all exegesis, verses 15-44 [of Surah 27] represent a seemingly disjointed account more reminiscent of an opaque folktale than historical narrative or a didactic midrash based on an ancient and oft-read chronicle. Moreover, the Qur’ānic version remains elusiveand ahistorical even after considering the scattered references to Solomon that are found elsewhere in Islamic literature.” -Lassner, Jacob. Demonizing the Queen of Sheba: Boundaries of Gender and Culture in Postbiblical Judaism and Medieval Islam. University of Chicago Press, 1993, 42.
“Talk-a-Bye” Baby Eisa?
The Arabic Infancy Gospel is widely regarded as apocryphal. It is believed to be a seventh century invention and was quite popular among the Syrian Nestorians. the Injilu ‘t Tufuliyyah or the Gospel of the Infancy of Jesus Christ contains an Arabic translation of the Infancy Gospel of Thomas which contains a story of the infant Jesus talking: Jesus spoke when he was in the cradle, and called out to his mother Mary:—
“Verily I am Jesus, the Son of God, the Word, whom thou hast given birth to according to the good tidings given thee by the Angel Gabriel, and my Father hath sent me for the Salvation of the World.”
The Syriac Infancy Gospel (Injilu ‘t Tufuliyyah), translated from a Coptic original. The original manuscript is not generally believed by scholars to be in Arabic, but in Syriac. However that version has been lost and therefore the translations made are from the Arabic translation of it (Davies, 2009).
The story of the baby Jesus speaking found in Suras 19:29-31 and 3:46 parallels that in the apocryphal works:
“But she pointed to him. They said: How should we speak to one who is a child in the cradle? He said: I am indeed a servant of Allah. He has given me the Book and made me a prophet. And He has made me blessed wherever I may be, and He has enjoined on me prayer and poor-rate so long as I live” (Qur’an 19:29-31)
“And he will speak to the people when in the cradle and when of old age, and (he will be) one of the good ones” (Qur’an 3:46)
“We find what follows in the book of Joseph the high priest, who lived in the time of Christ. Some say that he is Caiaphas. He has said that Jesus spoke, and, indeed, when He was lying in His cradle said to Mary His mother: I am Jesus, the Son of God, the Logos, whom thou hast brought forth, as the Angel Gabriel announced to thee; and my Father has sent me for the salvation of the world.”- The Arabic Gospel of The Infancy of The Saviour.
Mary and Zachariah
Protevangelium of James (PoJ): “Most scholars now date PoJ, or at least the bulk of it’s first draft to the second half of the second century. On stylistic and theological grounds, the Protevangelium has long been considered apocryphal. Tischendorf travelled to St Catherine’s monastery and obtained the manuscripts that were gathering dust in it’s vaults (about to be used in a basket to stoke a fire!). Being non-scriptural, these Gospels were subject to much amendment and alteration. It seems to have been a popular book, and over one hundred extant Greek manuscripts, some of them dating from the third century contain all or part of PoJ. The author of PoJ claims to be James the step-brother of Jesus…(in fact)…He is not likely to have been (even) as Jew. PoJ shows a great ignorance not only of Palestinian geography, but also of Jewish customs (eg. Joachim is forbidden to offer his gifts first because of childlessness, Mary is taken to be a Ward of the Temple, Joseph plans to go from Bethlehem to Judea)…There is however no doubt that a terminus ad quem (a final limiting point in time) may be found in the patristic testimony of Origen (died 254) and Clement of Alexandria (died 215). The Ascension of Isaiah 11 written early in the second century has a similar account of the birth to that found in PoJ, but the dependence of one on the other is difficult to prove.” – J K Elliot
The Doting Date
Gospel of Pseudo-Mathew (GPM): Probably written between 600 and 625 AD, although J K Elliot raises the possibility that it was composed before the 6th century as there is possible allusion to it in the Gelasian decree. The story of using the rods to choose a husband for Mary is also present here (verse 8). The manuscript evidence for this in not as good as PJ, though it has much in common with PJ, to the extent that the reason that early PJ manuscripts in Latin are not extant are probably because this superceded it in the Latin world, containing no account of Joseph’s first marriage which has been categorically condemned in those parts by Jerome. The earliest extant manuscript then is from the 11the century.
the Protevangelium of James was heavily used in eastern Christian liturgical collections (in western Christianity, although the text was banned, the Protevangelium of James was reworked in the form of the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew. The story in the Gospel of Pseudo-Matthew 20, which was composed sometime between the middle of the sixth century and the end of the eighth century, is reported as follows (as below)
Thereupon she conceived him, and retired to a far-off place. And when she felt the throes of childbirth she lay down by the trunk of a palm-tree, crying: “Oh, would that I had died before this and passed into oblivion!” [And he (Jesus), from below her],19 cried out to her: “Do not despair.
Your lord has provided a brook that runs at your feet, and if you shake the trunk of the palm-tree it will drop fresh ripe dates in your lap. Therefore eat and drink and rejoice.” (Qur’an 19:22-26)
“And it came to pass on the third day of their journey, while they were walking, that Mary was fatigued by the excessive heat of the sun in the desert; and, seeing a palm-tree she said to Joseph, “I should like to rest a little in the shade of this tree.” Joseph therefore led her quickly to the palm and made her dismount from her beast. And as Mary was sitting there, she looked up to the foliage of the palm and saw it full of fruit and said to Joseph, “I wish it were possible to get some of the fruit of this palm.” And Joseph said to her, “I am surprised that you say so, for you
see how high the palm-tree is, and that you think of eating its fruit. I am thinking more of the want of water because the skins are now empty, and we have nothing with which to refresh ourselves and our cattle.” Then the child Jesus, reposing with a joyful countenance in the lap of his mother, said to the palm, “O tree, bend your branches and refresh my mother with your fruit.” And immediately at these words the palm bent its top down to the very feet of Mary; and they gathered from it fruit with which they all refreshed themselves.”
The annunciation story in sura Al‘Imran 3:42–9 derives from the extracanonical text the Protevangelium of James 11, whereas the version in sura Maryam 19:17–21 derives from the Gospel of Luke 1–2.
| Protevangelium of James | Quran Surah Imran | Gospel of Luke | Quran Surah Maryam | |
| Anunciation of Mary and her upbringing in the Temple | Yes | Yes | – | – |
| Anunciation of John | – | – | Yes | Yes |
| Anunciation of Jesus | Yes | yes | Yes | Yes |
| Will conceive the Word of god | Yes | yes | – | – |
| Will conceive a boy | – | – | Yes | yes |
Table showing how the infancy narrative in Surah Maryam is taken from the PoJ while that in Maryam is taken from Gospel of Luke and is also present in Diatesseron.
The Cross Illusion
“But the father without birth and without name, perceiving that they would be destroyed, sent his own first-begotten Nous (he it is who is called Christ) to bestow deliverance on those who believe in him, from the power of those who made the world. He appeared, then, on earth as a man, to the nations of these powers, and wrought miracles. Wherefore he did not himself suffer death, but Simon, a certain man of Cyrene, being compelled, bore the cross in his stead; so that this latter being transfigured by him, that he might be thought to be Jesus, was crucified, through ignorance and error, while Jesus himself received the form of Simon, and, standing by, laughed at them.
For since he was an incorporeal power, and the Nous (mind) of the unborn father, he transfigured himself as he pleased, and thus ascended to him who had sent him, deriding them, inasmuch as he could not be laid hold of, and was invisible to all.
Those, then, who know these things have been freed from the principalities who formed the world; so that it is not incumbent on us to confess him who was crucified, but him who came in the form of a man, and was thought to be crucified, and was called Jesus, and was sent by the father, that by this dispensation he might destroy the works of the makers of the world. If any one, therefore, he declares, confesses the crucified, that man is still a slave, and under the power of those who formed our bodies; but he who denies him has been freed from these beings, and is acquainted with the dispensation of the unborn father….”
(Against Heresies, Bishop Irenaeus of Smyrna Book1, Ch.24, Section 40, Google it on NewAdvent.com)
And again “Simon Magnus said: And so (it was that Jesus) appeared as a man… he suffered although not actually undergoing suffering, appeared to the Jews to do so.” (the Refutation of all Heresies by Hippolytus Ch. XIV)
The issue of Eisa’s death and Crucifixion is dealt with in detail here: Did Qur’an’s “Eisa” Die or Not?
The Sleepers
The Seven Sleepers, commonly called the “Seven Sleepers of Ephesus”, refers to a group of Christian youths who hid inside a cave outside the city of Ephesus around 250 AD, to escape a persecution of Christians being conducted during the reign of the Roman emperor Decius. Another version is that Decius ordered them imprisoned in a closed cave to die there as punishment for being Christians. Having fallen asleep inside the cave, they purportedly awoke approximately 180 years later during the reign of Theodosius II, following which they were reportedly seen by the people of the now-Christian city before dying.
The earliest version of this story comes from the Syrian bishop Jacob of Sarug (c. 450-521), which is itself derived from an earlier Greek source, now lost. An outline of this tale appears in Gregory of Tours (b. 538, d. 594), and in Paul the Deacon’s (b. 720, d. 799) History of the Lombards. The best-known Western version of the story appears in Jacobus de Voragine’s Golden Legend. The Roman Martyrology mentions the Seven Sleepers of Ephesus under the date of 27 July, as follows: “Commemoration of the seven Holy Sleepers of Ephesus, who, it is recounted, after undergoing martyrdom, rest in peace, awaiting the day of resurrection.” The Byzantine Calendar commemorates them with feasts on 4 August and 22 October. In the Qur’an (Surah 18, verse 9-26).
The Quranic gives the number of years that they slept as 300 solar years, gives the option of adding 9 more, and also vacillates upon the actual number of sleepers plus dog. Although in that version the dog accompanies the youths into the cave, passersby miraculously see a dog keeping watch at the entrance, deterring them form investigating.
Critique:
The Romans were persecuting specifically followers of the cult of Jesus, were they not? That’s historical. Plus there was a miraculous dog. Islam has an aversion to dogs overall, which stems from traditions quoting Muhammed stating that black dogs were demons in disguise. You will never ordinarily see a Muslim family with a dog. The “sleepers plus dog” is simply not a Muslims set-up, and there are simply no other parallels to Islamic figures associating with dogs.
I’d like to ask how it be possible that the Seven Sleepers, and even the God of the Seven Sleepers could be Islamic.
We see this story in surah 18 (al-Khaf: the Cave):9-12, 18-25
Keeping a dog in the house is haram in Islam, so the sleepers could not be Muslims. Islamic angels do not enter the room if there is even a puppy there.
On top of that we are to believe that the Islamic Allah performs a miracle upon a dog, preserving its life for maybe 300 years and protecting it from the enemy kuffar Romans.
Mind you this is the only place in the entire Quran that a dog is mentioned and five times. there is only one other passing reference to a dog in the entire Quran, and nothing bad is ever said about dogs. It is only in the hadith that they are vilified and literally demonized by Muhammed.
We see a clear contradiction here between the attitude of the Quran towards dogs and that of the hadith, and its all because of this copied story.
Muslims will reply that v.18 states that the dog is “stretching its paws across the threshold” and that this is allowed, for a dog to guard the house on the outside. However it does not change the fact that God saves the dog thereby demonstrating his concern for it contrary to Muhammed (and contrary to the Bible where there are no veterinarian miracles).
Lastly, the dog could not have been saved by freeze-drying it outside the cave, rather it would have been in the cave with the Sleepers as depicted in the Christian literature, further indication of plagiarization as this again would be haram in Islam.
Finally, the author of the Qur’an is displaying uncertainty about the number of sleepers going from 4 to 8 including the dog rather than actually providing the answer, which is again a demonstration of plagiarization.
Pharaoh is Preserved?
The Mekhilta de-Rabbi Ishmael Late 4th Century AD ~ Hebrew
Beshallah 7 (Exodus 14:28) “And the waters returned and covered the chariot, etc.”: even that of Pharaoh. These are the words of R. Yehudah, it being written (Ibid. 15:4) “the chariots of Pharaoh and his host, etc.” R. Nechemiah says: except for that of Pharaoh, it being written (Exodus 9:16) “But, because of this I have preserved you.” Others say: Pharaoh descended last and he drowned, viz. (Exodus 15:19) “For the horse of Pharaoh came with its chariot and its riders into the sea, and the Lord turned back upon them the waters of the sea.
There is a strange passage in the Qur’an in which pharaoh is both drowned and saved. Muslims claim this as a miracle of prescience which is unlikely because mummification was hardly a modern innovation which would take prescient knowledge at the time of Mohamed. It is more likely he got this confusing account from the Jewish apocryphal text
Gates of Alexander
The Syriac apocalyptic text known as the “Alexander Legend” was composed probably 629-630AD in which the story of the walls of Alexander is given. Muhammed dies 632AD. Kevin Van Bladel states “Thus, quite strikingly, almost every element of this short Qur’anic tale finds a more explicit and detailed counterpart in the Syriac Alexander Legend. In both texts the specific events are given in precisely the same order. Already earlier several cases of specific words that are exact matches between the Syriac and the Arabic were indicated. The water at the place where the sun sets is “fetid” in both texts, a perfect coincidence of two uncommon synonyms (Syraic Saryâ and Arabic hami’a)” (pg. 177) the Dhu l-Qarnayn episode in the Qur’an is derived from or retells the story found in the Syriac Alexander Legend. The account in Q 18:83–102 does not precisely match a story found anywhere other than in this one text…G.J. Reinink has devoted many articles to the problems posed by this Alexander Legend and related texts which have succeeded in determining definitively where, why, and when the Alexander Legend was written. It’s too much to go into, but the best study of these texts puts the dates accurately in the period mentioned. The reader is advised to refer to the reference book available online. It seems that the date for the writing of this legend dates just before the time of the death of Mohammed. However all the historical context for its writing is present in the Roman empire and that context is political rather than anything religious. At least that is how it seems to an analysis. This legend has not spiritual value and neither is it written, in the manuscript where the legend is written indeed as a legend, and not merely as a part of a greater narrative to which it clings, for a spiritual value.
Weighing deeds in scales
The OT Apocrypha speaks of God weighing on balancing pans the good and bad deeds of people to determine their eternal destinies (Testament of Abraham 13:1-2, 9-14; 1 Enoch 41:1-2; 61:8). The condition of eternal salvation is specified as obedience to the Law of God (2 Baruch 51:3,7; 4 Ezra 7:19-22, 33-39; 9:3~37).
Useful Reference books
-Abraham Geiger’s aus dem Judentum aufgenommen? (“What did Muhammad take from Judaism?”), 1833
-The Qur’an in its Historical Context (Routledge Studies in the Qur’an)
Edited by Reynolds, G S , pdf available online
Appendix:
Judaic Literature
The Tanakh The Hebrew Bible (same as the Christian New Testament). The first four books are the Torah (or the Christian Pentateuch).
The Mishnah It’s purpose was to elaborate on matters of law laid in the Torah by rabbis down the years which grew into an ever more complex body of material. By 220 AD, much of the Oral Law was edited together into the “Mishnah”, and is now published by Rabbi Judah haNasi.
The Talmud Over the next four centuries this material underwent analysis and debate, known as Gemara (“completion”), in what were at that time the world’s two major Jewish communities, in the land of Israel and in the Babylonian Empire. These debates eventually came to be edited together into compilations known as the Talmud.
1.The Talmud Yerushalmi (Jerusalem Talmud) for the compilation in Israel, and
2. Talmud Bavli (Babylonian Talmud) for the compilation undertaken in Babylon.
These were mainly compiled in the academies of Tiberias and Caesaria and reached it’s final form in 350-400 AD. The Babylonian Talmud is often seen as more authoritative compiled by the scholars of the Land of Israel and the other by those of Babylonia complied primarily in the academies of Sura and Pumbedita, completed c. 500 CE). and is studied much more than the Jerusalem Talmud. In general, the terms “Gemara” or “Talmud,” without further qualification, refer to the Babylonian recension. The Encyclopedea Judaica 1996 edition, Vol 15, p 772, states: “Jerusalem Talmud was compiled about a century before the Babylonian in 500CE. Its close was entirely due to the situation which prevailed in (Erez) Israel. The activities of the main school, that of Tiberius, came to an end in 421 (CE).
The Midrash An on-going vault of fables constructed around the characters of the Torah, of multiple versions of a single Torah-ical event, designed to make the teachings more accessible to the audience. A massive collation consisting of several volumes of the Haggada –the traditions which have grown up surrounding the Biblical narrative, which are stories and bits of layered detail scattered throughout the Talmud and the Midrash, and other sources, including oral tradition: “The Legends of the Jews” was completed in 1909 by Louis Ginzberg, who undertook the task of arranging the Haggada into chronological order. It is a major work running into seven volumes.
The Targumim (Singular Targum):
The targumim were spoken paraphrases, explanations, and expansions of the Jewish scriptures that a Rabbi would give in the common language of the listeners, which during the time of this practice was commonly, but not exclusively, Aramaic. This had become necessary near the end of the last century before the Christian era, as the common language was in transition and Hebrew was used for little more than schooling and worship. Eventually it became necessary to give explanations and paraphrases in the common language after the Hebrew scripture was read. The noun Targum is derived from early semitic quadrilateral root ‘trgm’, and the term ‘Targummanu’ refers to “translator”.
Para- Christian Literature:
The Old Testament Pseudoepigrapha: The word meaning ‘of doubtful authorship’. Well documented by Charlesworth Volumes 1 and 2, beautifully researched by a team of scholars with full index of source material indicated as ‘text’.
New Testament Apocrypha: There is a bewildering array of these spurious ‘gospels’, which can go under the name of “apocrypha”. There are spurious counterparts for each of the four types of New Testament writing. In addition there is a multiplicity of Gospels that focus on parts of Jesus’ life on which the Gospels are silent, and also so-called secret-teachings that are alluded to in the canonical Gospels, as later revealed to specific persons. (This is to be distinguished from the Old Testament Apocrypha, which are 12? Books that are regarded as canonical by the Roman Catholic Church):
- The early Church fathers (patristic writings) like St Augustine, and writings of the
- Doctors of the Church like St Thomas Aquinas and St Alphonsus Liguori.
- Other saints like St Ignatius of Loyola, Sister Faustina Kowalska, etc.